Kenneth Clinton Wheare

Wheare defined federalism as 'the method of dividing powers so that the general and regional governments are each, within a sphere, coordinate and independent' . This definition was derived primarily from his analysis of the American Constitution, particularly its sharp formal division of powers between national and state governments . It became canonical because it provided a clear, testable criterion for classifying systems: if the two levels of government are not coordinate and independent within their spheres, the system is not truly federal. Until studies by Riker, Watts, and Wildavsky appeared, the theory of federalism was embodied largely in Wheare's work .

Wheare argued that federal unions require substantial similarity of political institutions across member states, not just constitutional text. He cited the Swiss Confederation's transformation in 1848, where the 'great divergence of political institutions in the cantons'—oligarchies, a monarchy, aristocracies, and democracies—had to be brought 'into line' before a successful federal union could form . His conclusion was that just as the desire for federal union is unlikely to arise among states with different regimes, the capacity to form and work such a union can hardly exist without substantial similarity .

Wheare's classification rested on whether general and regional governments are coordinate—neither subordinate to the other—and independent within their defined spheres. Systems where regional governments are legally subordinate to a central authority (like unitary states with devolved powers) fail this test. He stressed the sharp division of powers as the basis for classifying systems as federal . His framework restricted the classic federations to the United States, Canada, Australia, and Switzerland, though he acknowledged that other systems might claim the designation .

Wheare formulated a principle in his chapter on 'Federal Government and the War Power' that remains insightful: 'the essence of federalism is plural, while the essence of war is unitary' . This captured the tension between federalism's dispersed, coordinate authority and the centralized command structure that warfare demands. Subsequent scholars noted that this theme was surprisingly neglected in later federalism research and in comparative civil-military relations, despite its potential to open new avenues for theorizing about how federal systems manage external threats .

Wheare was born in Victoria, Australia, in 1907 and studied at Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, winning a first in philosophy, politics, and economics . He became Gladstone Professor of Government and Public Administration at All Souls College, Oxford, in 1944, and later rector of Exeter College (1956) and Oxford's first Australian vice-chancellor (1964-66) . He was elected Fellow of the British Academy in 1952 and served as its President from 1967 to 1971 . He also advised on constitutional drafting for former British colonies, including Newfoundland and the Central African Federation .

Wheare's definition was later criticized for being overly legalistic and restricted to the American model's sharp division of powers. Riker, Watts, and Wildavsky developed alternative frameworks that emphasized political bargains, party systems, and social conditions rather than formal constitutional structure . His requirement of coordinate and independent governments excluded systems with overlapping or shared powers that many scholars consider federal in practice. Additionally, his focus on the four classic federations limited the comparative reach of his framework for analyzing newer federal systems in Asia and Africa .